Veterinary Toxicology

W.K. Rumbeiha , D.B. Snider , in Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition), 2014

Blue-Green Algae

Blue-green algae poisoning occurs in late summer and early fall when the algae forms a scum on top of ponds or other stagnant waters. Because of the predisposing husbandry practices, cattle are most frequently involved. Blue-green algae poisoning has been reported in North America, South Africa, and Britain. Algae of genus Anabaena are most frequently involved. There are two distinct syndromes in blue-green algae poisoning: the neurotoxic and the hepatotoxic syndromes. The neurotoxic disorder is peracute, and cattle drinking water containing the neurotoxic principle Anatoxin A can die within a few minutes and usually are found quite close to the pond or water (algae) source. On the other hand, the hepatotoxic principle causes an acute type of poisoning characterized by lethargy and jaundice. Death may occur 2 or 3 days after drinking contaminated water. Because of the peracute nature of the blue-green algae-induced neurological syndrome, there is hardly time for treatment and the prognosis is universally grave. Treatment of animals affected with the liver syndrome of blue-green algae poisoning involves appropriate supportive therapy.

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Water quality in the Murray–Darling Basin: The potential impacts of climate change

Darren S. Baldwin , in Murray-Darling Basin, Australia, 2021

Blue-green algal blooms

Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are a group of photosynthetic prokaryotes and, as such, are not true algae, but rather bacteria. They prefer still, warm, nutrient-rich water (Reynolds, 1998). Blue-green algae pose a significant water quality risk when present in high numbers (known as an algal bloom). A large number of blue-green algal species produce compounds that are toxic to higher organisms. There have been numerous documented cases of the death of domestic animals from drinking water containing blue-green algae, but no human deaths that can be unequivocally linked to exposure to toxins (Falconer, 2001). However, in 1980, 150 children and adults from Palm Island, near Townsville in North Queensland, were hospitalised with hepatoenteritis (Byth, 1980), with the cases coinciding with the dosing of the local reservoir to remove a bloom of what was subsequently identified as the blue-green algae Cylindrospermopsis sp. (Hawkins et al., 1985).

Contact exposure of blue-green algae has been linked to a variety of other, nonlethal symptoms in humans, such as allergic reactions, headaches, and dizziness (see Stewart et al., 2006), putatively caused by a group of compounds known as lipopolysaccharides, although a systematic review of the literature could not definitively link exposure to cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides with these symptoms (Stewart et al., 2006).

All blue-green algae produce a compound called beta-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA; Cox et al., 2003, 2005), which is a simple amino acid that has been shown to induce changes in the brain structure of monkeys that are similar to human patients with Alzheimer's disease (Cox et al., 2016). Therefore it is possible, but as yet not proven, that prolonged exposure to blue-green algae and hence BMAA could lead to an increased risk of neuron diseases in humans.

In addition to the effects on humans and domestic animals, blue-green algal blooms can also have adverse effects on the environment. In Africa, pansteatitis, also known as 'yellow fat disease', has caused the death of substantial numbers of crocodiles. It has been suggested the crocodiles contracted the disease from eating fish that also died from the disease (Huchzermeyer et al., 2013). There are two possible mechanisms for fish to contract pansteatitis. The first relates to the lack of essential fatty acids in blue-green algae that are necessary for the growth of higher organisms. Thus, zooplankton feeding on blue-green algae will be depleted in these polyunsaturated fatty acids and sterols, and if they are the major component (directly or indirectly) of a fish's diet, the fish will be depleted in those fatty acids, which can lead to pansteatitis. The second possible explanation is that pansteatitis in fish is caused by exposure to prooxidants that cause lipid peroxidation (i.e. breakdown). One likely prooxidant is microcystin (see Amado et al., 2011), the toxin produced by a number of different blue-green algae. However, irrespective of the mechanism, it is highly likely that if blue-green algae become the predominant primary producer in lowland rivers in Australia, this could compromise the health of native Australian fish.

Blue-green algal blooms in the flowing sections of the rivers of the MDB are, for the most part, rare (GHD, 1974; Croome et al., 1976; Sullivan et al., 1988; Walker and Hillman, 1982; Water ECOscience, 2002; Watts et al., 2017). For example, in the River Murray, blue-green algal blooms were reported in the late 1930s and early 1940s and can be attributed to 'trophic upsurge' associated with nutrients released from inundated soil and vegetation following the commissioning of Lake Hume, a headwater dam on the River Murray. The next confirmed report of an algal bloom in the River Murray was in 1981–82 (Sullivan et al., 1988) and coincided with a period of climatic drought in the southern MDB. During the Millennium drought, there were blooms of blue-green algae in the River Murray in 2003, 2007, 2009, and 2010, (Baldwin et al., 2010; Al-Tebrineh et al., 2012; Bowling et al., 2013, 2016), the latter two impacting on over 1000   km of the river. A further bloom occurred in 2016, which impacted over 2500   km of the River Murray and its anabranches in the Edward-Wakool River system (Bowling et al., 2018).

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Microbial Contaminants

C.P. Gerba , I.L. Pepper , in Environmental and Pollution Science (Third Edition), 2019

13.3.5 Blue-Green Algae

Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria (Fig. 13.17), occur commonly in all natural waters, where they play an important role in the natural cycling of nutrients in the environment and the food chain.

Fig. 13.17

Fig. 13.17. Blue-green algae.

 (Source: University of Pennsylvania. cal.vet.upenn.edu/poison/index)

However, a few species of blue-green algae, such as Microcystis, Aphanizomenon, and Anabaena, produce toxins capable of causing illness in humans and animals. These toxins can cause gastroenteritis, neurological disorders, and possibly cancer. In this case, illness is caused by the ingestion of the toxin produced by the organisms, rather than ingestion of the organism itself, as is the case with helminths. Numerous cases of livestock, pet, and wildlife poisonings by the ingestion of water blooms of cyanobacteria have been reported, and evidence has been mounting that humans are also affected. Heavy blooms of cyanobacteria can occur in surface waters when sufficient nutrients are available resulting in sewage-contaminated water supplies.

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Environmentally Transmitted Pathogens

Charles P. Gerba , in Environmental Microbiology (Third Edition), 2015

22.2.9 Blue–Green Algae

Blue–green algae or cyanobacteria occur in an enormous diversity of habitats, freshwater and marine, as plankton (free floating), mats and periphyton (attached to surfaces). Hot spring mats of some Oscillatoria develop up to temperatures of 62°C (Figure 22.7). They have many beneficial functions such as nitrogen fixation and cycling of nutrients in the food chain.

Figure 22.7. Oscillatoria—a blue–green algae.

 Courtesy Michael Clayton (2006).

Despite their beneficial roles in the environment, cyanobacteria sometimes become problematic. Occasionally, they increase rapidly resulting in cyanobacterial blooms (Figure 22.8). Blooms are associated with eutrophic water, especially with levels of total phosphorus >0.01   mg/L and levels of ammonia- or nitrate-nitrogen >0.1   mg/L. Optimal temperatures for blooms are 15–30°C, and optimal pH is 6–9. Calm or mild wind conditions sometimes allow blooms to cover the water surface, but the highest concentrations of cyanobacteria may occur at depths ranging from 2 to 9   m, which will not be visible from the shore. The offending bacteria may also grow in the sediment. These blooms can impart an off-taste and odor to the water, and/or result in the production of toxins.

Figure 22.8. Cyanobacterial bloom.

 Courtesy C.P. Gerba.

The most common complaints related to such blooms are of taste and odor. Geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) can produce odors at levels as low as 1.3–10 and 6.3–29   ng/L, respectively (Young et al., 1996). The odor produced by geosmin is described as earthy, and that of MIB as musty or camphorous smelling. Concentrations of MIB and geosmin are usually highest in summer and fall. Several compounds produced by cyanobacteria can cause off-tastes and odors as shown in Table 22.5.

Table 22.5. Cyanobacterial Compounds Producing Off-tastes and Odors

Compound Odor Taste
Geosmin Earthy, musty, grassy Musty, earthy, stale
MIB Musty, earthy, peaty Musty, earthy, stale
Isobutylmethoxypyrazine Woody, stale, musty Creosote, stale, dusty
Isopropylmethoxypyrazine Sooty, dusty, cabbage Musty, vegetable water
Octa-1,3-diene Musty
Hexanal Green apple-like
Octan-1-ol Rancid
β-Cyclocitral Tobacco

Geosmin is produced by several cyanobacteria including Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Lyngbya, Phormidium, Symploca (Narayan and Nunez, 1974), Aphanizominon and Fischerella (Wu and Juttner, 1988). Lyngbya, Oscillatoria and Phormidium (Izaguirre, 1992) are the most common genera producing MIB. Some strains of Diplocystis and Schizothrix can also cause off-tastes and odors. Microcystis release some odorous sulfur compounds, especially when they decay.

Many cyanobacteria found in algal blooms can produce toxins that cause liver damage, neural damage and gastrointestinal (GI) disturbances. This has been well documented in many wild animal and livestock cases and implicated in human cases as well. Microcystis is the number one offender worldwide. Other toxin-producing genera include Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Alexandrium, Cylindrospermopsis, Nodularia, Nostoc and Oscillatoria (Turner et al., 1990). Different types of toxins produced are shown in Tables 22.6 and 22.7. Most toxic species are associated with temperate rather than tropical climates.

Table 22.6. Cyanobacterial and Types of Toxins Produced

Genus Toxins Produced
Anabaena Anatoxin-a, hepatotoxins
Aphanizomenon Saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, hepatotoxins
Alexandrium Saxitoxin
Cylindrospermopsis Hepatotoxin
Nodularia Nodularins
Oscillatoria Neurotoxins, hepatotoxins
Microcystis Microcystins

Table 22.7. Characterization of Cyanobacterial Toxins

Toxin Characterization of Toxin
Anatoxins Neurotoxins
Microcystins Hepatotoxins
Nodularins Hepatotoxins
Saxitoxins Neurotoxins

In livestock and wild animals, the hepatotoxins cause weakness, anorexia and liver damage. They can be lethal within minutes to a few days. Neurotoxins can cause twitching, muscle contraction, convulsions and death. Signs and symptoms in humans associated with the ingestion of water with algal blooms are dizziness, headaches, muscle cramps, nausea, vomiting, gastroenteritis and pneumonia (Phillip et al., 1992). Long-term exposure to toxins is associated with liver cancer as well (Carmichael, 1994).

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Cyanoprokaryota and Other Prokaryotic Algae

A. Sukenik , ... J. Padisák , in Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, 2009

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) constitute the largest, most diverse, and most widely distributed group of photosynthetic prokaryotes. Although they lack organized chloroplast, their photosynthetic apparatus is remarkably similar in functional, structural, and molecular respects to that of higher plants and algae, with the exception of their light harvesting complex, which comprises phycobilline chromophores. Cyanobacteria are common in soil and in both salt and fresh water and can grow over a wide range of temperatures. Under proper conditions (including pollution by nitrogen wastes) they can rapidly proliferate, forming dense floating mats, called scums, usually colored opaque green. Notorious blooms of toxic cyanobacteria that jeopardize the supply of drinking water were recorded in recent years world wide. This chapter reviews aspects of the taxonomy, structure, diversity, metabolic activities, and physiological ecology of cyanobacteria and discusses their adaptation to inland water environments and the role they play in a wide range of aquatic ecosystems.

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INTRODUCTION TO FRESHWATER ALGAE

Robert G. Sheath , John D. Wehr , in Freshwater Algae of North America, 2003

A. Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria or blue–green algae are prokaryotes, that is, cells that have no membrane-bound organelles, including chloroplasts (Table I; Chap. 3). Other characteristics of this division include unstacked thylakoids, phycobiliprotein pigments, cyanophycean starch, and peptidoglycan matrices or walls. There are 124 genera reported from inland habitats in North America, of which 53 are unicellular or colonial (Chap. 3) and 71 are filamentous (Chap. 4). However, the taxonomy of this division is currently in a state of flux, as noted in Chapter 3, and the number of genera should be considered to be tentative.

Cyanobacteria inhabit the widest variety of freshwater habitats on Earth and can become important in surface blooms in nutrient-rich standing waters (Chaps. 3 and 4). Some of these blooms can be toxic to zooplankton and fish, as well as livestock that drink water containing these organisms. Inland cyanobacteria also occur in extreme environments, such as hot springs, saline lakes, and endolithic desert soils and rocks.

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Cyanobacteria as source of novel antimicrobials: a boon to mankind

Trashi Singh , ... Pradeep Shukla , in Microorganisms for Sustainable Environment and Health, 2020

11.1 Introduction

Cyanobacteria (blue–green algae) are ubiquitous oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria present in aquatic and terrestrial environments. They are very resistant to harsh conditions of the environment, therefore they are also widely distributed in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, and polar environments (Whitton and Potts, 2000). Cyanobacteria are important organisms as they are exploited in different frontier areas of biotechnology (Pankratova, 1987).

The adaptability of cyanobacteria in versatile and extreme environments has developed certain mechanisms in them to produce a diversity of secondary metabolites. These metabolites are of biotechnological significance as unique structural features and biological activities. Over the years cyanobacteria and algae have been extensively screened for potential metabolites with antimicrobial and pharmaceutical properties (Mhadhebi et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2010; Khairy and El-Kassas, 2010; Sethubathi and Prabu, 2010; Patterson et al., 1994; Battu et al., 2011). These extensive screening programs on cyanobacteria have led to the discovery of novel compounds with antimicrobial, antineoplastic, and cytotoxic activities (Jaki et al., 1999).

The screening and isolation of bioactive compounds from cyanobacteria fulfills two objectives. Firstly, to discover novel compounds with pharmaceutical, agricultural, or biological applications, and secondly, to study the biodiversity of an organism within its natural habitat (Rania and Hala, 2008). Recent studies on freshwater blue–green algae have proved their potential to synthesize bioactive compounds that have a potential of being utilized as antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and other pharmacological activities (Gul and Hamam, 2005; Mayer and Hamann, 2005; Borowitzka and Borowitzka, 1992).

Various studies have revealed that various products produced by cyanobacteria are of toxicological, pharmaceutical, or commercial interest (Rainer and Franz, 2006). Extensive screening programs are run to discover new cyanobacterial bioactive metabolites. To achieve the task, cyanobacteria are sampled and cultivated from various sources. Usually, the natural environments of microalgae are exploited to discover cyanobacterial compounds which are toxic to other cyanobacteria or algae.

Since the resistance toward known antibiotics is increasing within pathogenic bacteria, the metabolites sources like microorganisms, plant sources, and cyanobacteria are of major interest as they show antagonistic activity (Yousefzadi et al., 2011).

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FOSSIL PLANTS | Calcareous Algae

J.C. Braga , R. Riding , in Encyclopedia of Geology, 2005

Calcified Cyanobacteria

Originally named blue-green algae, the prokaryotic cell organization of this group clearly allies it with bacteria. In natural environments, cyanobacteria extrude polymeric substances to form protective sheaths. These can create diffusion limited sites in which photosynthetic uptake of H C O 3 − generates pH gradients that can result in CaCO3 precipitation. However, calcification only occurs if environmental conditions favour precipitation. Since cyanobacterial calcification is localised in the external mucilaginous sheath, the resulting microfossils are simple in form and include bush-like forms (e.g., Angusticellularia), tube-like filaments (e.g., Girvanella, Hedstroemia, Cayeuxia) (Figure 11), and chambered clusters (e.g., Renalcis).

Figure 11. Section of Cayeuxia, a calcified cyanobacterium. The branching tubes are the result of calcification of the external mucilaginous sheath surrounding cell filaments. Middle Triassic, Betic Cordillera, southern Spain. Scale bar   =   500   microns.

Whereas some fossils are readily recognized as calcified cyanobacteria, others are more problematic. These include sedimentologically important Cambrian and Late Devonian fossils such as Epiphyton and Renalcis that have some resemblances to cyanobacteria but are not identical to modern examples, and are generally referred to as calcimicrobes. Renalcis and Epiphyton, together with the cyanobacterium Angulocellularia, were major reef builders in the Cambrian.

Cyanobacteria have a geological record from the Archaean, but are not conspicuous as calcified fossils in marine environments until the Phanerozoic and even then their secular distribution is episodic. This could reflect variation in the saturation state of seawater over geological time. Calcified cyanobacteria assumed major importance in the Cambrian and Early Ordovician. They reappeared in abundance in the Late Devonian, and were common until the mid-Cretaceous, but are scarce or absent in marine environments during the Cenozoic (Figure 1). During episodes of abundance, calcified cyanobacteria were major reef components and in the Palaeozoic they often rivalled calcareous sponges such as archaeocyaths and stromatoporoids in importance. In present-day lakes and rivers, calcified cyanobacteria can form thick tufa bioherms and dams, together with oncoids (spherical stromatolites).

Small unicellular picoplanktic cyanobacteria, such as Synechococcus, form seasonal blooms in lakes along with diatoms and other planktic algae. Their photosynthesis can stimulate water column precipitation of small calcite crystals (whitings). Marine whitings in tropical seas may have a similar origin and potentially account for abundant lime mud production on ancient carbonate platforms.

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Bio-optical Modeling of Phycocyanin

Linhai Li , Kaishan Song , in Bio-optical Modeling and Remote Sensing of Inland Waters, 2017

8.1 Introduction

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are the oldest oxygenic photoautotrophs on Earth and have exerted major impacts on shaping the biosphere, which had led to the evolution of the higher terrestrial plant and animal lives (Paerl and Otten, 2013). Through the long evolutionary history (around 3.5 billion years), cyanobacteria have acquired the ability to adapt to geochemical and climatic changes (Paerl and Paul, 2012) and diverse aquatic environments with different nutrient levels, water diversion, and salinization (Reynolds, 1987; Paerl and Otten, 2013). Global warming and eutrophication in water bodies have increased cyanobacterial bloom potentials due to cyanobacterial preferential growth conditions of higher temperature and nutrient levels (Smith, 1986; Paerl and Huisman, 2008). Such trend is unfavorable because the blooms produce surface scums and earthy smell in water bodies for drinking water supplies (Codd et al., 1999) and it was reported that cyanobacteria produce a variety of toxic compounds, for example, microcystins and saxitoxins (Baker et al., 2002; Chorus and Bartram, 1999; Sivonen, 1996). These cyanobacteria-generated toxins may cause severe health issues; for example, it was suggested that microcystins caused acute liver injury or even death (Falconer et al., 1983; Jochimsen et al., 1998; Carmichael et al. 2001; Azevedo et al. 2002) and chronic exposure to low-level microcystins increased the tumor risk (Falconer and Humpage, 1996; Humpage et al., 2000). Thus, the adverse cyanobacterial blooms result in serious issues in lakes and reservoirs for drinking water supplies and/or recreational activities. It is critical to monitor cyanobacterial blooms and determine the toxicity in drinking water sources from early stage (Baker et al., 2002; Codd et al., 2005; Song et al., 2014).

Therefore, determining cyanobacterial abundance helps water resource managers to take measures to decrease the health accidents caused by cyanobacteria. The first approach is to count cyanobacterial cells using microscopy, which also provides the identification of cyanobacterial genus. The polymerase chain reaction was also adapted to directly identify cyanobacteria from other organisms in water samples by amplifying the phycocyanin intergenic spacer region, which as well provides direct implication of toxigenicity (Baker et al., 2002). Application of high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) is another standard protocol for identification and quantification of cyanobacteria (Lawton et al., 1994). Although HPLC does not have the capability to identify cyanobacterial species, it measures various pigments and provides a robust measure of cyanobacterial abundance. On the other hand, in vivo fluorometric approaches usually provide indirect measure of cyanobacterial abundance by determining concentration of one or two pigments such as chlorophyll-a (chl-a) and phycocyanin (PC). For instance, various companies (e.g., Hydrolab and YSI) manufacture submersible multiparameter sondes equipped with fluorescence sensors for quantifying chl-a, PC, and phycoerythrin within a water column. Despite that laboratory and field approaches described above provide useful data to infer cyanobacterial growth, these traditional approaches are often limited due to the extensive efforts of water sampling (Hunter et al., 2009) or small spatial scale of coverage (Guanter et al., 2010).

As a result, the traditional approaches are not suitable to monitor cyanobacterial blooms which are ephemeral in time and widely dispersed in space (Hunter et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2015). The limitations of traditional approaches are overcome by remote sensing techniques, which provide a synoptic view at a short temporal scale. For example, remote sensing was used to monitor the spatiotemporal dynamics of chl-a concentration ([chl-a]) in inland waters (e.g., Gons, 1999; Gons et al., 2008; Li et al., 2013 and references therein; also see Chapters 6 and 7 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 in this book for bio-optical modeling and fluorescence of chl-a in inland waters, respectively), which was subsequently used to infer cyanobacterial biomass (Kutser, 2004). Nevertheless, [chl-a] only implies the total algal biomass but not specific biomass of cyanobacteria. Quantification of chl-a is not a robust means to accurately estimate cyanobacterial abundance because all phytoplankton contains chl-a (Randolph et al., 2008; Song et al., 2014). A quantification of a pigment contained by freshwater cyanobacteria is needed in order to more accurately determine the cyanobacterial abundance in the water bodies. It was suggested that PC is a unique pigment of freshwater cyanobacteria and depicts a distinctive optical feature around 620–630   nm (see Section 8.2), which makes the remote detection (i.e., bio-optical modeling) of cyanobacteria possible (e.g., Dekker, 1993; Simis et al., 2005; Mishra et al., 2013). Therefore, remote sensing of freshwater cyanobacteria has been largely focused on developing deferent bio-optical algorithms to estimate PC within last more than two decades (e.g., Dekker, 1993; Schalles and Yacobi, 2000; Simis et al., 2005, 2007; Li et al., 2015 and references therein) although a few works on remote quantification of cyanobacterial cells were also found (e.g., Lunetta et al., 2015).

As discussed above, traditional approaches for monitoring cyanobacteria that rely on field sampling are time-consuming and labor intensive; thus, this chapter is focused on the emerging remote sensing techniques that provide a fast and efficient method to provide us both intensity and spatial distribution of cyanobacterial blooms. In Section 8.2, the absorption feature of PC and its corresponding response on remote sensing reflectance will be discussed, as which is the fundamental basis for bio-optical modeling of phyocyanin from remote sensing measurements. We then in Section 8.3 comprehensively reviewed existing remote sensing algorithms of [PC] in literature. A few representative algorithms are subsequently evaluated and compared using the same large field dataset in Section 8.4. In Section 8.5, maps of [PC] were generated from airborne images to demonstrate the capability of remote sensing to present a synoptic view of [PC] in a water body. At last, a summary of this chapter and future research direction of bio-optical modeling of [PC] are noted in Section 8.6.

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Introduction to the Freshwater Algae

Robert G. Sheath , John D. Wehr , in Freshwater Algae of North America (Second Edition), 2015

A Cyanobacteria

The cyanobacteria or blue-green algae are prokaryotes without membrane-bound organelles (Table 1; Chapter 3). Other characteristics of this division include unstacked thylakoids, phycobiliprotein pigments, cyanophycean starch, and peptidoglycan matrices or walls. There are 174 genera reported from inland habitats in North America, of which 66 are unicellular, colonial, or pseudofilamentous (Chapter 3) and 108 are filamentous (Chapter 4). However, the taxonomy of this division is currently being revised (Komárek, 2013, Chapter 3), and the number of genera should be considered tentative.

Cyanobacteria inhabit the widest variety of freshwater habitats on Earth and can become important in surface blooms in nutrient-rich standing waters ( Chapters 2-4 Chapter 2 3 4 and 20). However, nitrogen-fixing taxa have been shown to be good indicators of N-limited sites, such as streams in California (Stancheva et al., 2013b), as well as in many lakes and reservoirs (Howarth et al., 1988). Some of the cyanobacterial blooms can be toxic to zooplankton and fish, as well as livestock that drink water containing these organisms. Inland cyanobacteria also occur in extreme environments, such as hot springs, saline lakes, and endolithic desert soils and rocks (Chapters 2 and 20).

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